CHEMICAL PESTICIDES

Pesticides and chemical elements are composed of no less than 105 elements. But that is often used as an element of pesticides is 21 elements. Elements or atoms are more often used is carbon, hydrogen, oxigen, nitrogen, phosphorus, chlorine, and sulfur. While coming from a metal or metal spring is ferum, cuprum, mercury, zinc and arsenic.

1. Each pesticide pesticide properties have different properties. Properties of pesticides are often found is the power, toxicity, empirical formula, formula-up, formulation, molecular weight and boiling point.

2. Tata Knowledge pesticide Pesticides name also includes the structure and mode of administration known by the name or nomenclature.

3. How Pesticides Work

Pesticides contacts, means having the power to kill after the body remains exposed to the target. Fumigant pesticide, means having the power to kill after the target's body exposed to vapors or gases Systemic pesticide, meaning it can be transported to different parts of plants through a network. Pests will die if sucking plant fluids. Pesticides stomach, means having the power to kill after consuming pesticide target body.

INSTRUCTIONS FOR USE PESTICIDES

1. Choosing pesticides sold in the market many pesticide formulations can differ from each other trade names, despite having the same active ingredient. To select pesticides, the first thing to remember is the type of body that will dikendahikan bully. This is important because each pesticide formulation is only effective for certain types of bodies bullies. Then the selected pesticide formulations must match the body nuisance to be controlled. To make it easier to select the pesticide can be read on each label contained in any pesticide. In the label-type bodies tercantumjenis bullies can dikendahikan. 

Also listed for use and the dangers that may arise. To maintain the efficacy of pesticides, then you should buy a pesticide that has been registered and permitted oleb Department of Agriculture comes with original packaging and containers or the official label. Pesticides were not and are not labeled diwadah not guaranteed efficacy.

2. Storing pesticides Pesticides should always be kept in good condition, with original container or wrapper, sealed, no leaking or damaged. Include all original label with a clear and complete. Can be stored in a special place that can be locked, so that children may not reach them, as well as pets or livestock. 

Keep away from food, beverage and sources of ignition. Make a locked room with good ventilation. Not exposed to direct sunlight and the room did not leak the rain. This can all lead to decreased efficacy of pesticides. For the case a pesticide spill at any time, it must be provided ditergent soap and water, along with sand, lime, sawdust or absorbent soil as pesticides. Also provide an empty container, at any time to replace the leaking pesticide containers.

3. Using pesticides to use pesticides to keep in mind a few things to note:

1. Pesticides used if necessary

2. Should eat and drink sufficiently before working with pesticides

3. Should follow the instructions contained in the label

4. Children are not allowed to use pesticides, as well as pregnant women and people who are not good health

5. In the event of injury, close the wound, because pesticides can be absorbed through cuts

6. Use special equipment, long sleeves and legs, gloves, garden shoes, goggles, masks and hair and other attributes necessary

7. Be careful working with pesticides, the more concentrated the pesticide concentration. It should not be eating and drinking

8. Do not kiss pesticides, because pesticides are very dangerous if wafted

9. Preferably at the time of dilution or mixing pesticides carried out in the open. Always use clean tools and special tools

10. In a mixing pesticides adjust the recommended dosage. Do not over-or less

11. Do not mix pesticides allowed more than one kind, but it is recommended

12. Do not spray pesticides or sow when it would rain, hot weather, strong winds and spray or spread the opposite direction of the wind direction. When not feeling well stop working and rest sufficiently

13. Pesticide containers must be destroyed or buried, burned so as not to be used by others for the food and beverage

14. Put a warning sign at the new place to be treated with pesticides

15. After working with pesticides, all equipment must be cleaned, as well as clothing, wash with soap and clean as possible.

Insecticide

Insecticides are substances toxic chemicals used to kill insects. Insecticides can affect the growth, development, behavior, breeding, health, hormonal system, digestive system, as well as other biological activity to lead to the death of the insect nuisance plants Insecticides including one type of pesticide.

Historical use of insecticides

The plantation workers are known to have used soap to control the growth of insect pests since the early 1800s. At the beginning of the 19th abag, soap made from the most widely used fish oil. These methods are effective, although they had given many times and sometimes even deadly plants. [3] The earliest known also by the use of a mixture of garlic, onion, and pepper or a variety of other foods, but not enough to effectively kill insects. 

The use of synthetic insecticides first started in the 1930s and began to spread after the end of World War II.  In 1945 to 1965, the group organochlorine insecticide widely used for both agriculture and forestry.  One of the most famous product is the insecticide DDT commercialized since 1946.  Furthermore, emerging class of synthetic insecticides such as organophosphates, carbamates, and pirethroid in the 1970s. since 1995, transgenic plants carrying the gene for insect resistance into use. 

The types of insecticides

Insecticides can be divided into organic and inorganic groups.  contains elements Insekstisida organic carbon while inorganic insecticides are not. Organic Insecticides generally are natural, that is derived from living so called biological insecticide.

1. Synthetic insecticides

Synthetic organic insecticide that is widely used is divided into several major categories: 

2. Organophosphate compounds

Insecticide group is made up of organic molecules by the addition of phosphate.  synthetic insecticides are included in this group are chlorpyrifos, chlorpyrifos-methyl, Diazinon, Dichlorvos, Pirimphos-methyl, Fenitrothion and Malathion. 

3. Organochlorines compounds

Insecticide group is made up of organic molecules by the addition of chlorine.  are very persistent organochlorine insecticides, which remains active compounds mashi for years.  Therefore, the present class of organochlorine insecticides has been banned due to a devastating effect on environment. Examples of classes of organochlorine insecticides are Lindane, chlordane, and DDT. 

4. Carbamate

Carbamate class of insecticides known to be effectively shut down many types of pests at high temperature and leaving residues in moderation.  However, the carbamate insecticide will decompose in the atmosphere that is too alkaline. One example often used is carbamates bendiokarbamat. 

5. Pirethrin / Pirethroid Synthetic

Insecticide group consists of two katergori, the backwardly fotostabil and non fotostabil bersfiat not yet kemostabil. The product is often mixed with other compounds to produce a better effect. One example of this is a permethrin insecticide product.

6. Insect Growth Regulator

This group of insecticides is a hormone that plays a role in the growth cycle of insects, such as inhibiting normal development. Some examples of products is Methoprene, Hydramethylnon, Pyriproxyfen, and Flufenoxuron. 

7. Fumigant

Fumigants are volatile gases that can kill insect pests.  fumigants should only be used by trained personnel due to its high level of toxicity.  Examples Methyl Bromide (CH3Br), Aluminium phosphite, phosphite Magnesium, Calcium Cyanide , and Hydrogen Cyanide. 

8. Biological Insecticide

a. Although better known insecticides are synthetic compounds, but there is also a natural insecticide derived from bacteria, trees, and flowers.

b. Silica (SiO2) is an inorganic insecticide that works by removing the veil of wax on the cuticle of insects causing suffocation. Insecticides of this type are often made of diatomaceous earth or kieselgurh, composed of molecules diatoms Bacillariophyceae. 

c. Boric acid (H3BO3) is an inorganic insecticide used to attract ants. 

d. Pirethrum is a natural organic insecticide derived from the chrysanthemum flower heads tropics.  These compounds have inhibitory ability of both insects at low concentrations.  However, associated with the extraction process, these compounds are very expensive. 

e. Rotenon is a natural organic insecticide derived from Derris tree. This compound serves as insecticides that attack the body surface pests. 

f. Neem is an extract from the Neem tree (Azadirachta indica).  The use of Neem as a biological insecticide began 40 years ago.  Extracts of neem interfere with the activity of the digestive system of insects, particularly the class of Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies and their larvae).  In addition, neem also acts as a growth regulator which causes some kind of insect larvae kept in condition and can not grow up. 

g. The bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis produce Bt toxin that can kill insects that eat them. Bt toxin is active in alkaline pH and cause gastrointestinal insect holes that lead to death.  The researchers have succeeded in transferring genes involved in the production of Bt toxin B . thuringiensis into cotton plants so that the insects that eat the cotton plant will die. Cotton Bt transgenic organism is one of the most widely grown in the world. 

Fungicides

Fungicides are pesticides that specifically kill or inhibit fungi that cause disease. Fungicides can be liquid (most commonly used), gas, grains, and powders. 

 The company producing the seed usually use a fungicide on seeds, bulbs, roots transplants, propagatif and other organs, in order to kill the fungus on the material to be planted and to protect young plants from fungal pathogens.

In addition, the use of fungicides can be used via trunk injection, spray liquid directly, and in the form of fumigant (gaseous sprayed ). fungicides can be classified into two categories, namely fungicides selective (fungicide sulfur, copper, quinone, heterocyclic) and non-selective (fungicide aromatic hydrocarbons, anti-oomycota, oxathiin, organophosphates, fungicides which inhibit sterol synthesis, as well as systemic fungicides other). 

Evolution

Evolution (in the study of biology) means a change in inherited traits of a population of organisms from one generation to the next. These changes are caused by a combination of three main processes: variation, reproduction, and selection. The properties on which the evolution is carried by genes that are passed on to offspring of a mortal and a variable in a population. When organisms reproduce, their offspring will have new properties. New properties can be obtained from the changes due to mutations in the gene or gene transfer between populations and between species. In species that reproduce sexually, new combinations of genes are also produced by genetic recombination, which can increase variation between organisms. Evolution occurs when these heritable differences become more common or rare in a population.

Evolution is driven by two main mechanisms, namely natural selection and genetic drift. Natural selection is a process that causes terwaris properties that are useful for the survival and reproduction of organisms become more common in a population - and vice versa, the nature of the harm to be further reduced. This occurs because individuals with advantageous traits are more likely to reproduce large, so that more individuals in the next generation that inherits beneficial properties of this. After several generations, adaptations occur through a combination of small changes in the nature of the occur continuously, random natural selection.

 Meanwhile, genetic drift (English: Genetic Drift) is an independent process that produces random changes in the frequency properties of a population. Genetic drift is produced by probability whether a trait is inherited as an individual will survive and reproduce.

Although the changes generated by drift and natural selection is small, these changes will accumulate and lead to substantial changes in the organism. This process culminated in producing new species. And in fact, the similarities between organisms with other organisms mensugestikan that all the species that we know originated from a common ancestor through a process that occurs slowly diverging this. 

Documentation of facts made by the branch of the evolutionary biology called evolutionary biology. This branch also develop and test theories that explain the causes of evolution. Study of the fossil record and the diversity of biological organisms living has convinced scientists in the mid-19th century that species change over time. However, the mechanisms that drive these changes remained unclear until the publication in 1859 by Charles Darwin, On the Origin of Species, which describes in detail the theory of evolution by natural selection. Darwin's work was soon followed by a reception with the theory of evolution in the scientific community. In 1930, Darwin's theory of natural selection combined with the theory of Mendelian inheritance, shaping the modern evolutionary synthesis,  that connects the units of evolution (genes) with the mechanism of evolution (natural selection). The explanatory power and predictive theory encourages continuous research raises new questions, in which it has become a central tenet of modern biology that gives a more thorough explanation of biodiversity in the world. 

Although the theory of evolution has always been associated with Charles Darwin, but it actually has roots in evolutionary biology since the time of Aristotle. However, Darwin was the first scientist who coined the theory of evolution that has been widely proven scientific testing established face. Until now, Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection is considered by the majority of the scientific community as the best theory to explain the evolution of events.

HOW TO USE PESTICIDES

How proper use of pesticides is one of the important factors in determining the success of pest control. Although this type of effective medicine, but due to improper use, it causes the futility of spraying. Things that need to be considered in the use of pesticides, which are the state of wind, air temperature, humidity and rainfall. The winds are calm and stable will reduce pelayangan pesticide particles in the air. If the temperature at the bottom of the hotter, the pesticide will move up to the top. Similarly high humidity will facilitate the hydrolysis of pesticide particles that cause lack of toxicity. Moderate rainfall can cause leaching of pesticides, further reduced the power of the pesticide.

Technical matters that need to be considered in the use of pesticides is the accuracy of dosing. Doses that are too high will lead to wastage of pesticides, in addition to damaging the environment. Doses that are too low causing the target pest is not dead. In addition to resulting in accelerating the emergence of resistance.

1. Dose is the amount of pesticide dosage in liters or kilograms of pesticides are used to control certain pests per unit area or per plant were carried out in one or more applications. There is also a mean dose is the amount of pesticides that have been mixed or diluted with water used to spray pests with a particular unit area. Dose of the active ingredient is the amount of pesticide active ingredient required for the purposes of unit area or unit volume of solution. The amount of a pesticide dosage is usually listed in the pesticide label.

2. The concentration of pesticides There are three kinds of concentration to consider in terms of pesticide use. The concentration of the active ingredient, ie the percentage of the active ingredient of a pesticide in a solution that is mixed with water. Concentration formulations, ie the number of pesticides in cc or grams per liter of water. Concentration or concentration of pesticides, the percentage content of pesticides in a solution so.

3. Sprayer equipment for pesticide application consists of an assortment of like a knapsack sprayer (high volume) usually with a volume of about 500 liters of solution concentration. Mist blower (low volume) usually with a volume of around 100 liters of solution concentration. And atomizer (ultra low volume) is typically less than 5 liters.

4. Droplet size There are various droplet sizes: coarse spray Veri over 300 μm 400-500 μm Medium Coarse spray spray spray 250-400 μm 100-250 μm Fine Mist Aerosol 0.1 to 50 μm 50-100 μm 5-15 μm Fog

5. Particle Size There are various particle size: 300 μm Microgranules Macrogranules over 100-300 μm 44-100 μm dusts comes Coarse Fine dusts comes less than 44 μm Smoke 0.001 to 0.1 μm

6. Size is only one kind of molecule, less yatu 0.001 μm